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Key Events timeline

• c. 1750- Industrialization begins in Great Britain 
• 1751-1772- Publication of the Encyclopedia
• 1762- Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes The Social Contract and Emile
• 1769- James Watt creates the modern steam engine
• 1775-1781-Revolution in North America
• 1776- Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations
• 1789- U.S. Constitution formally adopted; revolution begins in France
• 1791- Revolution begins in Haiti 
• 1792- France declared a republic
• 1799- Napoleon comes to power
• 1803- Denmark becomes first Western country to abolish the slave trade
• 1804- Haiti becomes independent from France 
• 1811- Simon Bolivar first takes up arms against Spain 
• 1814- George Stephenson puts a steam engine on a carriage on rails, inventing the locomotive
• 1815- Napoleon defeated at Waterloo; Congress of Vienna resettles the boundaries of European states
• 1816- Argentina becomes independent from Spain
• 1817- Chile becomes independent from Spain
• 1819- First Atlantic crossing by a steamship
• 1821- Mexico and Peru become independent from Spain
• 1822- Brazil becomes independent from Portugal
• 1825- Bolivia becomes independent from Spain
• 1839-1842- Opium War between China and Great Britain 
• 1842- Treaty of Nanjing opens Chinese ports
• 1848- Communist Manifesto published
• 1853- U.S. ships enter Japanese ports
• 1840s-1864- Taiping Rebellion
• 1865- U.S. Civil War ends, rapid U.S. industrialization begins
• 1868- Meji Restoration launches Japanese industrialization
• 1871- Germany gains resource-rich Alsace and Lorraine after defeating France
• 1873-c. 1900- Deep Global recession with uneven recovery
• 1890s- Argentina's leading textile manufacturer produces 1.6 million yards of cloth annually
• 1891-1904- Construction of trans-Siberian railroad

Anti- Imperalism

Anti-Imperialism lead to the contraction of certain states holdings and power, most notably the Ottoman Empire. This arose in part to due nationalism in these regions bringing the people's allegiance back to their region such as Egypt as opposed to the Ottoman Empire. Combined with the already fragile Ottoman rule this lead Egypt, the Balkans, and most of Ottoman Africa to gain either complete independence or at least semi autonomy. Other nations would also feel the effects of anti- Imperialism, even the U.S. with the rebellions in the Philippines, and while many nations such as the U.S. managed to suppress anti-Imperialism within their territories, many nations would feel its effects.

Nationalism

Nationalism was a unifying factor at a national level, while reducing regional allegiances. While economically and socially this mean increased stability and prosperity for the nation, it also focused people's attention outward. This led to a series of wars in Europe during this period, wars that with the power of industrialization were more terrible than ever before.

Imperalism Global Effects

For those European countries partaking in imperialism, its effects were double handed. On one hand imperialism brought with it a secure market for that country's goods and access to cheaper goods from that market. However, these benefits are somewhat offset in that large taxes were necessary to fund imperialistic efforts. For the recipients of  imperialism the effects also possessed dualism. For industries who competed with the mother countries goods, imperialism frequently meant impoverishment and repression of their trade, and restricted freedom for the people as a whole. While in certain areas such as dock workers, in ports bustling with trade brought about by imperialism, job security was assured. Imperialism also brought with it better infrastructure and sanitation facilities such as railroads and hospitals. As you can see imperialism was full of double handedness impoverishing some while enriching others.

People and Ideas Enlightenment Thinkers Overlooked

Enlightenment thinkers overlooked farming and agriculture. The thinkers were more focused on the   politics, science, and religion of the world.

HowStuffWorks: All About the Enlightenment

What Methods and Tactics did Industrialized States Use to Establish and Expand Their Empires?

European states established and expanded their empires via military power. In some cases, they did this by simply conquering states such as Africa and India. Britain established economic imperialism, the practice of dominating another's economy if not the state itself, in places such as China via the Opium War, in which Britain used its great military might to open up Chinese ports to British goods (specifically opium). The U.S. as well practiced economic imperialism by using military intimidation to force open Japan's ports for trade.

Colonial Rule Over Time

During this time period  European nations such as France, Britain, and a unified Germany established or increased control over their colonial system. For instance France would show increasing power over Indochina while Britain increased state control in India in place of the East India Company. Finally Germany quickly sated their imperialist ambitions by establishing control over larges swaths of Africa and in the Pacific such as the Bismarck Islands. Meanwhile Spain and Portugal began to lose control of their South and Central American colonies to successful independence movements.  

Key People

• John Locke: a seventeenth century Enlightenment thinker who preached ideas such as a contract government, or the "political theory that views government as stemming from the people, who agree to surrender a measure of personal freedom in return for a government that guarantees protection of citizens' rights and property" (Crossroads and Cultures). The certain rights that he believed in were the right to life, liberty, and property. Also, Locke held that if a government failed to serve its citizens properly, then they had to right to overthrow the government. 
• Voltaire: a French Enlightenment philosopher who called for a society based on merit and not noble birth. He compared the corrupt societies of Europe to the supposedly flawless societies of Asia.
• Baron Louis Montesquieu: a French Enlightenment thinker, who, similar to his contemporary, Voltaire, saw European society as inferior to Asian society. He also introduced the idea of separation of powers through judicial, legislative, and executive branches. 
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: a Swiss Enlightenment philosopher who, in his The Social Contract, states that due to corrupt governments "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains." Rousseau stressed proper education--namely, learning through experience rather than rote memorization (as can be seen in his book Emile). He also maintained that women were not equal to men.
• Adam Smith: Scottish author of On the Wealth of Nations, a book that introduced the concept of laissez faire, or the "economic doctrine that advocates freeing economies from government intervention and control" (Crossroads and Cultures).
• Denis Diderot: French author of the Enlightenment Encyclopedia, which emphasized the importance of commoners to society and the equality of all people. His book also contained sketches of new, practical machines.
• Frederick the Great: Prussian ruler from 1740-1786 who celebrated the Enlightenment and valued hard work in a ruler rather than a life of luxury.
• Catherine the Great: Russian ruler who greatly improved education for girls and who commenced the writing of a dictionary of the Russian language. She also tried to reform nobles so they would participate in the development of their subjects rather than vices and luxury. 
• Emel'ian Ivanoch Pugachev: instigator of the Pugachev Rebellion who united serfs in a revolt by claiming that he was the dead husband of Catherine the Great. 
• George Washington: the head general of the Continental Army who lead the American colonies to win freedom from Great Britain. Also, he was the first president of the United States.
• Alexander Hamilton: a leading figure in the writing of the Constitution of the United States who advocated the abolition of slavery.
• King Louis XVI: monarch of France who, through his spendthrift ways, caused the French government to be deep in debt. The French Revolution occured during his rule, and he was eventually executed via the guillotine.
• Olympe de Gouges: French Enlightenment thinker who wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen" which proclaimed that women were equal to men. In her "Reflections on Negroes," she said that blacks were no different than whites in the same way blonds were no different than blacks. 
• Mary Wollstonecraft: her A Vindication of the Rights of Woman compared the unjust subordination of women under men to the French nobles' oppression of the French commoners prior to the French Revolution. 
• Maximilien Robespierre: a French lawyer who seized power in the heat of the turmoil that ensued after the French Revolution. In his efforts to make France a republic, Robespierre tried to create a more egalitarian and patriotic society. However, it was he who ordered the execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette during a time known as the Terror, where many were killed and citizens were stripped of basic freedoms such as freedom of speech in accordance with general will, or the "political concept that once agreement among citizens creates a state, that state is endowed with a higher wisdom about policies with which virtuous citizens could not disagree" (Crossroads and Cultures).
• Napoleon Bonaparte: seized control of France as emperor in 1804. His Napoleonic Code increased wealth by establishing clear rules for economics but greatly decreased the status of women in France. He conquered much land in Europe, but then, weakened by a defeat in Russia, he was forced to surrender to British forces at Waterloo.
• Muhammad Ali: the viceroy of Ottoman-controlled Egypt who increased the cotton industry, greatly westernized Egypt by bringing in Europeans to advise him, centralized the government, and established public schools.
• Toussaint Louverture: the leader of the Haitian slave revolts that resulted in the emancipation of slaves in Haiti and, eventually, Haiti's independence. 
• Miguel Hidalgo: a Mexican priest who led an army of Native Americans angry at the oppression they faced under the creoles and the Spanish. He was executed in 1811, but his actions eventually led to the liberation of Mexico.
• Simon Bolivar: often called "The Liberator," Bolivar played a major role in the independence of several South American countries including Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia. He realized that to beat the Spanish, he needed to look past skin color and combine forces with all peoples. 
• Pedro I: when the Portuguese royal family returned home from Brazil, the king's son, Pedro, was left behind to tend to Brazil. Pedro declared Brazil independent in 1822 and made himself king.

Imperalism's Effects On Europe

Imperialism resulted in Europe coming to dominate most of the world. From ruling practically all of Africa to Britain's rule over India, Europe spread their influence and ideas around the world. "By 1900 the British ruled 400 million subjects and a quarter of the globe, while France possessions encompassed 6 million square miles and 52 million subjects. Germany united only in 1871, by 1900 had acquired an empire of 1 million square miles and 15 million people" (Lynn, Martin). The colonies/territories that Europe acquired gave them access to a plethora of cheap goods and markets. A non-economic consequence of Europe's imperial policy was a drive to have a strong military to safeguard overseas possessions. This would lead to Britain's becoming the most powerful maritime state in the world during this time period. For smaller nations overseas possessions gave them access to wealth and power that were impossible for them to secure in mainland Europe.

What is the basis of national identity and nationalism and how did governments use these new ideas on their populations?

Nationalism is defined as "a belief in the importance of one's nation, stemming from its unique laws, language, traditions, and history" (Crossroads and Cultures). It first emerged during the Enlightenment period, when people began to come together as a nation and to take pride in their culture. To build national identity, some looked to traditions of the past. For example, old works of literature such as poems were imitated by modern poets and were also recited by children in school. Another symbol of national unity was the leader of the country and the country's flag. The history of a nation was also an effective unifier, and leaders utilized this through monuments, parades, theatrical productions, and museums. However, people were prone to overlook the bloody details of their nation's past and instead focus more on the romantic details of their "founding fathers."
Below is a picture of the Korean flag first created in the 1880's. The Korean rulers wanted a flag that represented all of their peoples, something behind which Koreans could rally. The flag accomplishes this through the balance of yin and yang (depicted in the middle) and the four elements of water, fire, earth, and air.

Some governments sought national unity through a homogeneous culture, but others embraced cultural diversity. The Russian Empire attempted to force all of their peoples into adopting the Russian language and Orthodox religion. Contrastingly, the United States accepted and even celebrated African American musical innovations, such as blues and jazz. Both of these music genres have their roots in African music. 

New political ideologies developed from 1750-1900

Nationalism- faith in a unified nation of like-minded people
Conservatism- the thought that time-honored monarchical traditions were a better guarantee of a peaceful society versus the Enlightenment ideas of constitutions and republics
Romanticism- philisophical and artistic movement that glorified nature, emotion, and the imagination... kind of like stereotypical hippies...

                                               (example of romanticism^^)
Deism- understanding God's existence as separate from holy books, divine providence, revealed religion, prophecy, and miracles
Liberalism- humans have rights and government authority is not absolute
Republicanism- the belief that a nation should be ruled as a republic where the leader is elected by the people versus hereditary right
Toleration (tolerant pluralism)- belief that hatred or fear of other races or beliefs interfered with trade relations, exterminated freedom of thought and expression, disintegrate basis for friendship among nations, and led to persecution and war

Other ideologies stimulated by the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment stimulated the idea of uniting a nation-state under a constitution versus a monarchy. These new ideas included nationalism, conservatism, and romanticism. Nationalism is the belief in the importance of one's nation stemming from its unique laws, language, traditions, and history. By this theory, everyone contributes and is important to the government, and all citizens work together for the betterment of the nation. Conservatism is the political philosophy emphasizing the continuation of traditional institutions and opposition to sudden change in the established order. It became popular after bloody revolutions, namely, the French Revolution, because people thought that monarchies were a better way to guarantee peace than new governments. See the video below for more on conservatism. Lastly, romanticism is a European philosophical movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that valued feeling over reason and glorified traditional customs, nature, and the imagination. Similar to conservatism, romanticism was also born of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, as people saw that the blunt reasoning of the Enlightenment had led to such bloodshed. They longed for more beauty in their life, and they found it not in strict law codes but rather the arts.

The definitions here were gathered from Crossroads and Cultures.

How did imperial governments react to nationalistic rebellions?

Imperial governments normally tried to keep their subjects under control by force. They would send in their military to try and diffuse the situation, but the threat of the military only caused the rebellious people to fight back, as in the case of the Latin American, French, and American revolutions. Although, in the case of the Portuguese rebellion, the monarchy changed their government to please the rebellious subjects.

How did subject peoples relate to their ruling governments?

Subject peoples challenged the authority of their ruling governments. An example of this is the relationship between the Marathas and the Mughal Sultans. Aurangzeb, the leader of the Mughals, was fiercely Muslim, and he tried to force his religion on others. This included the Hindu Maratha Empire to the south. Aurangzeb attacked the Marathas in 1689 and the Deccan Wars (also known as the War of 27 Years) ensued. Although they were strongly outnumbered in both troops and weapons, the Marathas eventually fought off the Mughals. The Mughal empire crumbled soon after this stunning defeat only to be replaced largely by the Marathas.
Additionally, the American colonists in North America, the French subjects in France, and the peoples of Latin America overthrew their oppressive governments. Because of Enlightenment ideas that commonly emphasized human rights, people resented their governments.

This is a famous, anonymous representation of the storming of the Bastille, an event that helped to set in motion the French Revolution.

Sources

Pictures:
http://old.antislavery.org/breakingthesilence/images/slave_routes/pictures/netherlands-maroon2.jpg
http://westerneurope.weebly.com/uploads/6/3/3/0/6330559/9149692.jpg?874
http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/images/k/kr.gif
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Anonymous_-_Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/37.Adam_Smith.jpg
http://dickensataleoftwocities.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/jean-jacques-rousseau2.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Olympe_de_Gouges.jpg
http://raymondpronk.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/john-locke-portrait.jpg
http://www.brainpickings.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/voltaire.jpg
http://cf067b.medialib.glogster.com/media/f7/f775dd29874538c0dec40261ff655b7c128ff171d5994b8a4f4b4beac89c0661/montesquieu1.jpg
https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0-BecP1-7mkupMPqg8qv2BnqXGrGFp5m1rp0H4efAeupZmRrSo0zrodQ_2NTkYy8TbXBfp4RG5cr1Ha2XuzfGwoP6s4-lnNd0C4JpBDGCOZE_Cb1pq9p96PuVzraNgd5evWSfz3OuM2yN/s1600/turner_slave_ship_1840.jpg
https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihUr0a8-hzkgrYcbfJIrxpawGoamIAqMlYfvBA7ff8rD3-sqinrLYx1Sqx-l7WCY36WO4kztpsOKnA5n7CyeWaVEuwKEBzyoXIrzXyl-Lc_wFOsq_BqhTrz1lkWkAtW-cPh-NSLdhhoXE/s1600/Cruikshanks_political_cartoon_comment.jpg
http://www.theoccidentalobserver.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/crusades2.jpg
http://i220.photobucket.com/albums/dd273/KittyNekkyo/axis-powers-hetalia-9.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/18th_Royal_Irish_at_Amoy.jpg
http://www.overgroundonline.com/press/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/bhm-228x300.jpg
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Sedanl.jpg
http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/oren/Ottoman%20Empire,%20decline.gif
http://s3.amazonaws.com/magnoliasoft.imageweb/bridgeman/supersize/pnp268194.jpg

Information:
           Bristow, William. "Enlightenment." Stanford University. Stanford University, 20 Aug. 2010.Web. 27 Mar. 2014.
          "What Is Imperialism?" What Is Imperialism? N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2014.
          Lynn, Martin. "Empire and Imperialism: Europe." New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 2. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005. 657-661. Student Resources in Context. Web. 28 Mar. 2014

          "Colonialism/Imperialism: The Simple Way to Distinguish These Two Is To Think of Colonialism as Practice and Imperialism as the." Colonialism/Imperialism: The Simple Way to Distinguish These Two Is Tothink of Colonialism as Practice and Imperialism as the. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Mar. 2014
           "The Philosophies of Enlightenment." California State University. California State University, Dominguez Hills, n.d. Web. 28 Mar. 2014.
            Bedford/St. Martin's. Crossroads and Cultures: A History of the World's Peoples. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2012. Print.
 

How did the Enlightenment evaluate the role of religion in public life?

People insisted on the importance of reason rather than revelation. However, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Though the Enlightenment is sometimes represented as the enemy of religion, it is more accurate to see it as critically directed against various features of religion, such as superstition, enthusiasm, fanaticism and supernaturalism." In fact, deism developed during the Enlightenment, which is the belief that there is logically a supreme being, but it does not interfere with creation. A deist would not believe in miracles or have faith in scripture. Despite this, atheism did emerge in this time, mostly in French Enlightenment thinkers. Atheism is the rejection of any spiritual deity. As a result of all of these new philosophies, many people started to change their beliefs and turned to democracy and freedom of religion. 

Colonialism vs Imperialism

 Colonialism refers the creation of settlements in foreign territories intended to dominate the land and its native peoples and to take its wealth believed it cold secure distant territory at less expense than armies would require; it could train a foreign population in the imperial powers culture in some cases it could alleviate crowding in the mother country.
Imperialism occurs when a strong nation takes over a weaker nation or region and dominates its economic, political, and cultural life. However, as compared to Colonialism, Imperialism does not refer to large settlements by the ruling nation.  

Colonialism and Imperialism both see one country ruling over or dominating a foreign land and its indigenous population. This picture is a good representation of how Colonialism and Imperialism could be very similar as in this picture is Canada and English colony as well as places like India that were recipients of Imperialism more than Colonialism

How did Enlightenment thinkers affect understandings of therelationship between the natural world and humans?

They applied new ways of understanding the natural world to human relationships. They encouraged observation and inference in all spheres of life.The Scientific Revolution along with the Enlightenment opened a path for independent thought. Knowledge gained from the Enlightenment influenced human thought. Many of the uneducated people were unable to share in the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was defined by the knowledge and wisdom that people gained. A great emphasis was placed on scientific innovations. Ideas such as natural rights and freedom of speech inspired people to rebel. During the Enlightenment, racism and sexism were justified by "scientific evidence." False observations such as the comparison of skull sizes between men and women, whites and blacks were common, and they only led to increased discrimination.

Colonialism and Imperialism

Colonization refers the creation of settlements in foreign territories intended to dominate the land and its native peoples and to take its wealth believed it cold secure distant territory at less expense than armies would require; it could train a foreign population in the imperial powers culture in some cases it could alleviate crowding in the mother country.
Imperialism occurs when a strong nation takes over a weaker nation or region and dominates its economic, political, and cultural life.
Colonialism and Imperialism see one country ruling over or dominating a foreign land and its indigenous population

Religious influence on nationalism

A religious group could be patriotic about their religion if some authority threatens to oppress their religion. This religious nationalism could fuel a religious rebellion. In the case of Catholicism, though, the Catholics were worried about loosing their control so when Spain established colonies in Latin America one of the focuses was on converting the natives to Catholicism. In countries such as Germany after unification on the other hand Catholicism was seen as a source of allegiance outside the state and was therefore repressed.  As time went on Nationalism lead people to increasingly separate their allegiance to state vs Church with a person's allegiance expected to be to his state first.

How did slaves' resistance affect existing authorities in the Americas?

Slave resistance in the Americas challenged the existing authorities there.  Take for example the maroon communities found in Latin America. Because the treatment of slaves was so harsh, many were prone to run away from their masters. These fugitive slaves often banded together to form maroon communities. Popular spots for maroons were the backcountry of South America, the hills surrounding Mexico City, and Hispaniola. But the maroons of Suriname were especially successful. The numbers of the villages there increased greatly throughout the early eighteenth century, and as Suriname was able to fend off repeated attacks by the Dutch, it eventually gained independence in the late eighteenth century. Another example of slaves challenging authority is found in the British North American colonies. According to Crossroads and Cultures, "slave rebellions were relatively rare in these regions, although the slaves of New York were highly outspoken and sometimes alarmed city authorities. Slave resistance mostly consisted of work stoppages, tool breaking, truancy, and other 'passive' means."

What role did the Enlightenment play in making political revolutions and rebellions possible?

Enlightenment thought caused people to question established traditions. It inspired new ideas for government in people. Enlightenment thought took scientific thought and applied it to society. When the government of a certain region was abusing their power, Enlightenment ideals began to grow in the minds of people and often led to revolts and uprisings. It placed an emphasis on liberty and on the rights of the individual.

Relationship between nationalism and anti-colonialism

Nationalism is a patriotic feeling and anti-colonialism is the process of revolution. Nationalism fueled anti-colonialism. Want for more rights is the basic reason for all of the revolutions. The American people wanted a say in Parliament, the French wanted more rights because they felt they're tax money wasn't well spent if their government was in debt still after all the taxes they had to pay, and the Spanish slaves wanted to be set free (wanted the same rights as their owners). Another example is in existing empires such as the Ottomans were nationalism caused areas such as Egypt to increasingly transfer allegiance from the Ottoman Empire towards Egypt itself.

How did political rebellions affect the political structures andideologies around the world?

Rebellions resulted in the formation of new states and ideologies. For example, the revolutions of the United States and France led to new types of states and ideologies. Once free from the rule of Great Britain, the thirteen colonies became a new country, one that would eventually expand all the way to the Pacific Ocean. Also, the government created in the U.S. was very unique. It combined many Enlightenment developments such as a contract government and basic human rights. After the French Revolution, the "republic" of Maximilien Robespierre ruled for a time. The Committee of Public Safety stripped French citizens of many of their rights, drawing support from the political theory of general will. These new ideas from revolutions aided in stimulating the revolutionary and anti-imperial tendencies of this period. For example, USA's rebellion provided inspiration to the French Revolution, and both influenced the peoples of Latin America to revolt against their governments.

How did both the enlightenment and colonized people's actions affect political developments after 1750?

Enlightenment thought and the resistance of colonized peoples shaped the revolutionary activity. Often the result of such revolts was the formation of new states and ideologies. People's discontent with colonial rule led to new political ideologies. Many people started to focus on the idea of individual rights. People believed that they should have a say in the government.This is seen in France where peasants started to revolt because they were dissatisfied with the government. They believed that the king was being unfair and charging higher taxes. The ruler, King Louis XVI was seen as a tyrant by many. He was considered to be an absolute monarch and many believed he was abusing his power.

How did rebellions in the Americas and Europe reflect Enlightenment ideas?

All of the revolutions in the Americas and Europe reflect Enlightenment ideas, as can be seen in the documents proclaiming independence. The U.S.'s "Declaration of Independence" emphasized the inalienable rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness--almost verbatim from Enlightenment thinker John Locke's ideas. Also, the "Declaration of Independence" stated that Britain's monarchy had become tyrannical which therefore justified their rebellion. This aligns with Locke's reasoning that if a government failed to fulfill its promises to its citizens, it ceased to be authentic and could be superseded. The French "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" gave citizenship to people who were not just of the aristocracy. Along with that citizenship, it  guaranteed the basic rights of free speech, ownership of property, and protection from arbitrary acts of the state. Finally, the revolution in Haiti strongly reflects the new Enlightenment thought that blacks were, in fact, not inferior to whites. The blacks and mulattoes in Haiti were fed up with always being second to whites, even when the people of color were free plantation owners. After a number of successful slave revolts, France granted independence to slaves in Haiti.

For more information on the Haitian Revolution, watch the video below:

How did imperialists justify imperialism?

Imperialists used new racial ideologies, especially Social Darwinism to justify imperialism. Imperialists often believed they were superior over those who were imperialized. Some felt that it was their duty to protect other nations, especially weaker ones.
The main reason for France's colonization of Vietnam was for profit. Vietnamese workers now no longer provided solely for themselves; they were required to work for their French leaders. France took land in Vietnam, often by force, and turned the conquered land into plantations.Factories and mines were also established to exploit Vietnam's natural resources.

Benefits of Imperialism and Effects on European Influence

Many European nations used imperialism to establish a far flung empire that brought enormous economic benefits to said European nation. It gave European nations access to a wealth of new resources and allowed them to dominate trade in many markets while supplying them with cheap goods. Colonies also allowed the ruling nation's naval forces to dominate the seas in that region and build their naval power allowing them to dominate the region. The map below shows various European sea empires in the 1700's.

What were the effects of nationalism on various peoples and regions?

The ideology of nationalism spread and fostered new communal identities. It fostered a sense of patriotism and national pride. In many cases it also led to a more cohesive society. Nationalism makes people feel that they are important and in control.
In France, a sense of nationalism started to develop when Napoleon rose to power. As soon as Napoleon gained power, he took control of the weakened, existing government. Napoleon established many reforms that improved education. This reform taught children to be loyal to the nation rather than to the church. Napoleon also established a set of civil laws known as the Napoleonic Code. In the Philippines, nationalism was brought about by the love that the Filipinos had for their country. Nationalism in Germany was boosted when southern German states united with Prussia to engage in a war against France. Bismarck used a sense of national pride to unite the German states.

What social and political norms did Enlightenment thinkers challenge? What were the effects of their questioning?

Women's Rights: Just as France was having a revolution for equality for all peoples, a strong women's rights movement was enveloping the nation. Olympe de Gouges, a main figure in this movement, stated in her "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen" that women were born free and equal to men. English author Mary Wollstonecraft also penned a similar document entitled A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. She compared the unjust subordination of women under their husbands to the subordination of the French peasantry under the French aristocracy. Watch the video below for more information on women's suffrage in the United States:

Abolition of Slavery: At first, Enlightenment reasoning was commonly used to justify slavery. Scientists studied Africans and came up with lists of how they were biologically different than white people, which made it a "scientific fact" that blacks were inferior to whites. Also, since slavery helped the economies of nations as a whole, it was commonly viewed as good. Slavery was also a huge debate when composing the Constitution of the United States of America. Advocates for abolition included Alexander Hamilton, who ultimately lost the argument for the time being.
End of Serfdom: Russian serfs were emancipated beginning in 1861 under the rule of Alexander II. Groups of serfs were given land grants which one male was in charge of distributing to all the other serfs. Unfortunately, the 50 million ex-serfs were somewhat restricted by the requirements of communal landowning and decision making. Key figures in this liberation include educated serfs such as Alexander Nikitenko who protested their enslaved state.
Contract government: A major feature of the Enlightenment was the introduction of a contract government, or the "political theory that views government as stemming from the people, who agree to surrender a measure of personal freedom in return for a government that guarantees protection of citizens' rights and property" (Crossroads and Cultures). Up until this point, laws of a state were mainly based on the leading rulers' whims. Now, however, the people had a say in how they were to be governed. This is evident in the creation of the Constitution of the United States and other such documents.

Key Terms

• Nationalism- patriotic feelings, principles, and efforts
• Social Darwinism- the theory that individuals, groups, or peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals 
• Imperialism- a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force
• Economic Imperialism- the policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries; one country has a lot of economic power or influence over others
• French Revolution- a revolution in France that overthrew the monarchy
• Enlightened Absolutism- a form of government in which a number of absolute monarchs adopted reforms yet maintained a firm grip on power
• Individualism- a philosophy stressing the recognition of every person as a valuable individual with inborn rights
• Mercantilism- the economic belief that a favorable balance of trade would increase overall wealth and power for a country
• Rationalism- a philosophy of the Enlightenment which declared that using the power of reason, humans could arrive at truth and improve human life
• Relativism- a philosophy of the Enlightenment that different ideas, cultures, and beliefs had equal merit
• Romanticism- a movement that placed emphasis on innate emotions and instincts rather than reason as well as on the virtues existing in a natural state
• Skepticism- a philosophical movement that arose in response to rationalism and maintained that human perception is too relative to be considered credible
• Thirty Years' War- a war in Germany between 1618 and 1648 that was essentially fought between the Catholics and the Protestants
• Laissez faire- economic doctrine advocating freeing the economy from government intervention and control
• Contract government- political theory that views the government as stemming from the people, who surrender some personal freedom in return for government protection of rights and property
• Public sphere- cultural and political environment that emerged during the Enlightenment, where members of society gathered to discuss issues of the day
• Liberalism- political theory emphasizing free trade, individual rights, and the rule of law to protect rights as the best means for promoting social and economic improvement
• Federation- union of equal and sovereign states rather than a thoroughly integrated nation
• Republic- political system in which the interests of all citizens are represented in government
• General will- political concept that once agreement among citizens creates a statem that state is endowed with a higher wisdom about policies with which virtuous citizens could not disagree
• Capitalism- economic system where the means of production are privately owned
• Materialism- organization of society from the organization of production
• Federalism- a political system that utilizes provinces and states rather than a centralized system
• Nation- a sovereign political entity and defined territory of modern times representing a supposedly united people
• Realpolitik- a political philosophy most commmonly attributed to Otto von Bismarck involving a practical, tough-minded approach to politics

Crash Course World History: American Revolution

Crash Course World History: French Revolution

Crash Course World History: Haitian Revolution

Crash Course World History: Latin Revolutions

Crash Course World History: Samurai, Daimyo, Matthew Perry, and Nationalism

Crash Course World History: Imperialism