People and Ideas Enlightenment Thinkers Overlooked

Enlightenment thinkers overlooked farming and agriculture. The thinkers were more focused on the   politics, science, and religion of the world.

What is the basis of national identity and nationalism and how did governments use these new ideas on their populations?

Nationalism is defined as "a belief in the importance of one's nation, stemming from its unique laws, language, traditions, and history" (Crossroads and Cultures). It first emerged during the Enlightenment period, when people began to come together as a nation and to take pride in their culture. To build national identity, some looked to traditions of the past. For example, old works of literature such as poems were imitated by modern poets and were also recited by children in school. Another symbol of national unity was the leader of the country and the country's flag. The history of a nation was also an effective unifier, and leaders utilized this through monuments, parades, theatrical productions, and museums. However, people were prone to overlook the bloody details of their nation's past and instead focus more on the romantic details of their "founding fathers."
Below is a picture of the Korean flag first created in the 1880's. The Korean rulers wanted a flag that represented all of their peoples, something behind which Koreans could rally. The flag accomplishes this through the balance of yin and yang (depicted in the middle) and the four elements of water, fire, earth, and air.

Some governments sought national unity through a homogeneous culture, but others embraced cultural diversity. The Russian Empire attempted to force all of their peoples into adopting the Russian language and Orthodox religion. Contrastingly, the United States accepted and even celebrated African American musical innovations, such as blues and jazz. Both of these music genres have their roots in African music. 

New political ideologies developed from 1750-1900

Nationalism- faith in a unified nation of like-minded people
Conservatism- the thought that time-honored monarchical traditions were a better guarantee of a peaceful society versus the Enlightenment ideas of constitutions and republics
Romanticism- philisophical and artistic movement that glorified nature, emotion, and the imagination... kind of like stereotypical hippies...

                                               (example of romanticism^^)
Deism- understanding God's existence as separate from holy books, divine providence, revealed religion, prophecy, and miracles
Liberalism- humans have rights and government authority is not absolute
Republicanism- the belief that a nation should be ruled as a republic where the leader is elected by the people versus hereditary right
Toleration (tolerant pluralism)- belief that hatred or fear of other races or beliefs interfered with trade relations, exterminated freedom of thought and expression, disintegrate basis for friendship among nations, and led to persecution and war

Other ideologies stimulated by the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment stimulated the idea of uniting a nation-state under a constitution versus a monarchy. These new ideas included nationalism, conservatism, and romanticism. Nationalism is the belief in the importance of one's nation stemming from its unique laws, language, traditions, and history. By this theory, everyone contributes and is important to the government, and all citizens work together for the betterment of the nation. Conservatism is the political philosophy emphasizing the continuation of traditional institutions and opposition to sudden change in the established order. It became popular after bloody revolutions, namely, the French Revolution, because people thought that monarchies were a better way to guarantee peace than new governments. See the video below for more on conservatism. Lastly, romanticism is a European philosophical movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that valued feeling over reason and glorified traditional customs, nature, and the imagination. Similar to conservatism, romanticism was also born of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, as people saw that the blunt reasoning of the Enlightenment had led to such bloodshed. They longed for more beauty in their life, and they found it not in strict law codes but rather the arts.

The definitions here were gathered from Crossroads and Cultures.

How did imperial governments react to nationalistic rebellions?

Imperial governments normally tried to keep their subjects under control by force. They would send in their military to try and diffuse the situation, but the threat of the military only caused the rebellious people to fight back, as in the case of the Latin American, French, and American revolutions. Although, in the case of the Portuguese rebellion, the monarchy changed their government to please the rebellious subjects.

How did subject peoples relate to their ruling governments?

Subject peoples challenged the authority of their ruling governments. An example of this is the relationship between the Marathas and the Mughal Sultans. Aurangzeb, the leader of the Mughals, was fiercely Muslim, and he tried to force his religion on others. This included the Hindu Maratha Empire to the south. Aurangzeb attacked the Marathas in 1689 and the Deccan Wars (also known as the War of 27 Years) ensued. Although they were strongly outnumbered in both troops and weapons, the Marathas eventually fought off the Mughals. The Mughal empire crumbled soon after this stunning defeat only to be replaced largely by the Marathas.
Additionally, the American colonists in North America, the French subjects in France, and the peoples of Latin America overthrew their oppressive governments. Because of Enlightenment ideas that commonly emphasized human rights, people resented their governments.

This is a famous, anonymous representation of the storming of the Bastille, an event that helped to set in motion the French Revolution.

How did the Enlightenment evaluate the role of religion in public life?

People insisted on the importance of reason rather than revelation. However, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states: "Though the Enlightenment is sometimes represented as the enemy of religion, it is more accurate to see it as critically directed against various features of religion, such as superstition, enthusiasm, fanaticism and supernaturalism." In fact, deism developed during the Enlightenment, which is the belief that there is logically a supreme being, but it does not interfere with creation. A deist would not believe in miracles or have faith in scripture. Despite this, atheism did emerge in this time, mostly in French Enlightenment thinkers. Atheism is the rejection of any spiritual deity. As a result of all of these new philosophies, many people started to change their beliefs and turned to democracy and freedom of religion. 

How did Enlightenment thinkers affect understandings of therelationship between the natural world and humans?

They applied new ways of understanding the natural world to human relationships. They encouraged observation and inference in all spheres of life.The Scientific Revolution along with the Enlightenment opened a path for independent thought. Knowledge gained from the Enlightenment influenced human thought. Many of the uneducated people were unable to share in the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was defined by the knowledge and wisdom that people gained. A great emphasis was placed on scientific innovations. Ideas such as natural rights and freedom of speech inspired people to rebel. During the Enlightenment, racism and sexism were justified by "scientific evidence." False observations such as the comparison of skull sizes between men and women, whites and blacks were common, and they only led to increased discrimination.

Religious influence on nationalism

A religious group could be patriotic about their religion if some authority threatens to oppress their religion. This religious nationalism could fuel a religious rebellion. In the case of Catholicism, though, the Catholics were worried about loosing their control so when Spain established colonies in Latin America one of the focuses was on converting the natives to Catholicism. In countries such as Germany after unification on the other hand Catholicism was seen as a source of allegiance outside the state and was therefore repressed.  As time went on Nationalism lead people to increasingly separate their allegiance to state vs Church with a person's allegiance expected to be to his state first.

How did slaves' resistance affect existing authorities in the Americas?

Slave resistance in the Americas challenged the existing authorities there.  Take for example the maroon communities found in Latin America. Because the treatment of slaves was so harsh, many were prone to run away from their masters. These fugitive slaves often banded together to form maroon communities. Popular spots for maroons were the backcountry of South America, the hills surrounding Mexico City, and Hispaniola. But the maroons of Suriname were especially successful. The numbers of the villages there increased greatly throughout the early eighteenth century, and as Suriname was able to fend off repeated attacks by the Dutch, it eventually gained independence in the late eighteenth century. Another example of slaves challenging authority is found in the British North American colonies. According to Crossroads and Cultures, "slave rebellions were relatively rare in these regions, although the slaves of New York were highly outspoken and sometimes alarmed city authorities. Slave resistance mostly consisted of work stoppages, tool breaking, truancy, and other 'passive' means."

What role did the Enlightenment play in making political revolutions and rebellions possible?

Enlightenment thought caused people to question established traditions. It inspired new ideas for government in people. Enlightenment thought took scientific thought and applied it to society. When the government of a certain region was abusing their power, Enlightenment ideals began to grow in the minds of people and often led to revolts and uprisings. It placed an emphasis on liberty and on the rights of the individual.

Relationship between nationalism and anti-colonialism

Nationalism is a patriotic feeling and anti-colonialism is the process of revolution. Nationalism fueled anti-colonialism. Want for more rights is the basic reason for all of the revolutions. The American people wanted a say in Parliament, the French wanted more rights because they felt they're tax money wasn't well spent if their government was in debt still after all the taxes they had to pay, and the Spanish slaves wanted to be set free (wanted the same rights as their owners). Another example is in existing empires such as the Ottomans were nationalism caused areas such as Egypt to increasingly transfer allegiance from the Ottoman Empire towards Egypt itself.

How did political rebellions affect the political structures andideologies around the world?

Rebellions resulted in the formation of new states and ideologies. For example, the revolutions of the United States and France led to new types of states and ideologies. Once free from the rule of Great Britain, the thirteen colonies became a new country, one that would eventually expand all the way to the Pacific Ocean. Also, the government created in the U.S. was very unique. It combined many Enlightenment developments such as a contract government and basic human rights. After the French Revolution, the "republic" of Maximilien Robespierre ruled for a time. The Committee of Public Safety stripped French citizens of many of their rights, drawing support from the political theory of general will. These new ideas from revolutions aided in stimulating the revolutionary and anti-imperial tendencies of this period. For example, USA's rebellion provided inspiration to the French Revolution, and both influenced the peoples of Latin America to revolt against their governments.

How did both the enlightenment and colonized people's actions affect political developments after 1750?

Enlightenment thought and the resistance of colonized peoples shaped the revolutionary activity. Often the result of such revolts was the formation of new states and ideologies. People's discontent with colonial rule led to new political ideologies. Many people started to focus on the idea of individual rights. People believed that they should have a say in the government.This is seen in France where peasants started to revolt because they were dissatisfied with the government. They believed that the king was being unfair and charging higher taxes. The ruler, King Louis XVI was seen as a tyrant by many. He was considered to be an absolute monarch and many believed he was abusing his power.

How did rebellions in the Americas and Europe reflect Enlightenment ideas?

All of the revolutions in the Americas and Europe reflect Enlightenment ideas, as can be seen in the documents proclaiming independence. The U.S.'s "Declaration of Independence" emphasized the inalienable rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness--almost verbatim from Enlightenment thinker John Locke's ideas. Also, the "Declaration of Independence" stated that Britain's monarchy had become tyrannical which therefore justified their rebellion. This aligns with Locke's reasoning that if a government failed to fulfill its promises to its citizens, it ceased to be authentic and could be superseded. The French "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" gave citizenship to people who were not just of the aristocracy. Along with that citizenship, it  guaranteed the basic rights of free speech, ownership of property, and protection from arbitrary acts of the state. Finally, the revolution in Haiti strongly reflects the new Enlightenment thought that blacks were, in fact, not inferior to whites. The blacks and mulattoes in Haiti were fed up with always being second to whites, even when the people of color were free plantation owners. After a number of successful slave revolts, France granted independence to slaves in Haiti.

For more information on the Haitian Revolution, watch the video below:

What social and political norms did Enlightenment thinkers challenge? What were the effects of their questioning?

Women's Rights: Just as France was having a revolution for equality for all peoples, a strong women's rights movement was enveloping the nation. Olympe de Gouges, a main figure in this movement, stated in her "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen" that women were born free and equal to men. English author Mary Wollstonecraft also penned a similar document entitled A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. She compared the unjust subordination of women under their husbands to the subordination of the French peasantry under the French aristocracy. Watch the video below for more information on women's suffrage in the United States:

Abolition of Slavery: At first, Enlightenment reasoning was commonly used to justify slavery. Scientists studied Africans and came up with lists of how they were biologically different than white people, which made it a "scientific fact" that blacks were inferior to whites. Also, since slavery helped the economies of nations as a whole, it was commonly viewed as good. Slavery was also a huge debate when composing the Constitution of the United States of America. Advocates for abolition included Alexander Hamilton, who ultimately lost the argument for the time being.
End of Serfdom: Russian serfs were emancipated beginning in 1861 under the rule of Alexander II. Groups of serfs were given land grants which one male was in charge of distributing to all the other serfs. Unfortunately, the 50 million ex-serfs were somewhat restricted by the requirements of communal landowning and decision making. Key figures in this liberation include educated serfs such as Alexander Nikitenko who protested their enslaved state.
Contract government: A major feature of the Enlightenment was the introduction of a contract government, or the "political theory that views government as stemming from the people, who agree to surrender a measure of personal freedom in return for a government that guarantees protection of citizens' rights and property" (Crossroads and Cultures). Up until this point, laws of a state were mainly based on the leading rulers' whims. Now, however, the people had a say in how they were to be governed. This is evident in the creation of the Constitution of the United States and other such documents.